Swedish forest management

FAO (the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations) defines sustainable forest management as: “Sustainable forest management (SFM) is defined as a "dynamic and evolving concept, which aims to maintain and enhance the economic, social and environmental values of all types of forests, for the benefit of present and future generations". When sustainably managed, forests and trees make vital contributions to people and the planet by bolstering livelihoods, providing clean air and water, conserving biodiversity and helping combat climate change.

Forest Europe has adapted the definition to European conditions as: “Sustainable forest management means the stewardship and use of forests and forest lands in a way, and at a rate, that maintains their biodiversity, productivity, regeneration capacity, vitality and their potential to fulfil, now and in the future, relevant ecological, economic and social functions, at local, national, and global levels, and that does not cause damage to other ecosystems.”

In Sweden, sustainable forest management is regulated by several national laws, including the Forestry Act (sv skogsvårdslagen), the Environmental Code (sv miljöbalken), and the Species Protection Ordinance (sv artskyddsförordningen), as well as other legislation governing felling, reforestation and environmental considerations. Forest owners can also voluntarily certify their forests under PEFC and FSC. In addition, Swedish forestry is also shaped by several EU legislative frameworks.

Yes, it is. Sustainable forestry means that forests are managed in a way that is ecologically, economically, and socially sustainable over the long term, taking into account both present and future generations. Other key foundations of sustainable forestry are the Swedish Forestry Act (sv skogsvårdslagen) and the certification systems FSC and PEFC.

Swedish forestry is governed by several laws. The most important is the Forestry Act (sv skogsvårdslagen), which entered into force in the 1990s and is based on two equal objectives: production and environmental protection. Other examples of legislation that governs forestry include the Environmental Code (sv miljöbalken) and the Species Protection Ordinance (sv artskyddsförordningen). Laws such as the Land Code (sv jordabalken), the Off‑Road Driving Act (sv terrängkörningslagen) and the Historic Environment Act (sv kulturmiljölagen) are additional examples of legislation that affect forest owners.

In addition, Swedish forestry is also shaped by several EU legislative frameworks, such as the Regulation on Deforestation-Free Products (EUDR), the Nature Restoration Regulation, the LULUCF Regulation, and the Renewable Energy Directive.

Approximately 75 per cent of Sweden’s forest is actively managed. Sweden’s total land area is 40.7 million hectares, of which around 70 per cent consists of forest land. Trees from Swedish forests therefore represent one of the country’s most important raw materials.

Just over 25 per cent of Swedish forest land is not managed for various reasons, for example due to different forms of protection (such as nature reserves and national parks), voluntary set‑asides, or unproductive forest land.

Even‑aged retention forestry is the most common forest management method in Sweden. It is used because it is versatile, easy to adapt to different conditions, and can take many different forms. It aims to combine wood production with nature conservation in the same stand. So‑called continuous‑cover methods, such as gap felling, are also used within retention forestry. This means that forest owners can freely choose which types of measures are best suited to the specific site. An increasingly important and integral feature of retention forestry is the possibility to implement active measures for climate adaptation and forest resilience.

It is a cyclical method in which an area is harvested once the forest has reached maturity, after which new forest is established. Instead of clear-cutting everything, retention trees, deadwood and habitat structures are maintained to support ecosystem functioning and biodiversity. Even‑aged retention forestry is well suited to Swedish conditions, produces large volumes of timber, and is easy to adapt to different site conditions.

Even‑aged retention forestry is a cyclical, recurring process. Seedlings are planted, and as the trees grow, the forest is thinned to give the trees space to develop. When it is time for harvesting, the mature trees are felled, after which the next generation is established and the land is prepared once again for planting. At the time of harvesting, retention trees, deadwood and habitat structures are maintained to support ecosystem functioning and biodiversity. This cycle takes approximately 100 years.

Even‑aged forestry was introduced in Sweden during the first half of the 19th century. Prior to that, various so‑called continuous‑cover methods were used. However, because there was little focus on replanting, these methods came to be seen as exploitative – trees were harvested and removed from the forest without ensuring that new seedlings were given the conditions needed to grow strong.

Even‑aged forestry saw its major breakthrough in the 1950s, but the method has since been adapted and refined. Today, for example, clear‑cut areas are smaller and more trees are retained after harvesting.

The average size of contiguous clear‑cut areas is 4.5 hectares, while the median size is 2.5 hectares.

In northern Norrland, Sweden, the median size of a clear‑cut area is 4.3 hectares, whereas in Götaland, Sweden the median size is 1.9 hectares. The further south in Sweden you go, the smaller the clear‑cut areas tend to be.

Source: Swedish Forest Agency

The term clear‑cut is most often used to describe a type of harvesting that was common between the 1960s and 1980s, when clear‑cuts were large and largely devoid of trees. Today, knowledge of nature conservation is greater and retention forestry has evolved. The harvested areas are smaller, and seed trees, high stumps, buffer zones and retention trees are left after harvesting. Young forests today also show a greater variation in tree species.

Within the forestry sector, the term regeneration area is used instead to describe an area that has been harvested.

High stumps and so‑called retention trees are examples of measures used in forestry to support biodiversity. Trees are left along buffer zones adjacent to lakes and watercourses and for nature conservation purposes. Individual large or distinctive trees, groups of trees, and sometimes seed trees used for regeneration may also be retained.

In certified forests (FSC and PEFC), this approach is more common: at least ten additional trees per hectare are left on the harvested area, and there are rules governing how large an area that be completely cleared. Trees or deadwood are also left on the ground to slowly decompose, providing habitats for insects, lichens, mosses, fungi and other organisms.

Yes, there are. These methods are referred to as continuous‑cover forestry and involve avoiding large treeless areas. There are several different variants, such as selection forestry (sv blädningsbruk), small clearings (gaps) (sv små hyggen), and shelterwood systems (sv överhållen skärm). The latter two are also methods that are used within even‑aged forestry.

Continuous‑cover forestry means that large treeless areas are avoided. Instead, individual trees or small groups of trees are selectively harvested over time. This maintains a forest with trees of different ages, which can result in a more varied landscape. Continuous‑cover forestry may also be referred to as continuous‑cover methods or alternative forestry methods.

In even‑aged forestry, forests are thinned as they grow, but final harvesting does not take place until the forest is 60–120 years old. This means that forest machinery is used relatively seldom, reducing the risk of damage to the remaining trees.

In continuous‑cover forestry, harvesting takes place at intervals of 20–30 years. This involves a higher risk of root rot and other damage to the remaining trees, as machinery needs to enter the forest more frequently.

In even‑aged retention forestry, regeneration is a central phase of the cycle. After harvesting, site preparation is carried out to create the best possible conditions. New seedlings are then planted, often selected and improved to ensure good growth. Some trees, known as seed trees, are left standing to enable natural regeneration through seed dispersal.

In continuous‑cover forestry, such as selection forestry (sv blädning), gap cutting (sv luckor) and shelterwood systems (sv överhållen skärm), regeneration usually relies on natural seeding, with or without site preparation, which is a more uncertain regeneration method. If regeneration is not secured in continuous‑cover forestry despite repeated harvesting, it may be considered so‑called exploitative forestry.

In even‑aged retention forestry, forests become lighter and more open, which allows trees to grow better and faster and to bind as much carbon dioxide as possible. Immediately after harvesting, however, the carbon sink decreases locally, until the growth of new forest accelerates. Over the long term and at national level, forests managed through even‑aged retention forestry have a strong overall climate effect.

In continuous-cover forestry, forests are denser and darker. Young seedlings receive less light and have more difficulty establishing themselves. Competition from surrounding mature trees means that young trees grow slowly and require more time to store the same amount of carbon as the faster-growing trees in an even-aged forest. Locally, carbon uptake is higher when fewer trees are harvested. However, because overall forest growth generally is lower, total carbon sequestration may also be lower.